Hemp
Cultivation in Yugoslavia
Hemp
Cultivation in Yugoslavia
The situation in Yugoslavia, courtesy of Dr.
Janos Berenji:
HEMP IN YUGOSLAVIA: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
Dr. Janos BERENJI
Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad, YU
Prof. Dr. Milan MARTINOV
Faculty of Machine Engineering, Novi Sad, YU
TERMS
The former Yugoslavia has been divided into five successor
states. One of these is the present Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Yugoslavia; capital:
Belgrade), consisting of Serbia and Montenegro. The Province of Vojvodina (capital: Novi
Sad) is the Northern part of Yugoslavia and it borders with Hungary and Romania.
From the agronomic point of view for this paper the most important form of hemp, Cannabis sativa, is cultivated hemp consisting of fiber hemp grown for its stalk rich in fiber and seed hemp grown for seed production. In addition, drug hemp and spontaneous or "wild" hemp could be recognized.
Early history
It is obvious that hemp was introduced into the area of Yugoslavia very early. Considerable hemp production is evident from the 15th and 16th centuries. The Turks taxed the hemp production in Serbia, and Austro-Hungarian empress Maria Theresa recommended in 1765 that only high-quality hemp should be sown. Therefore, the Imperial Chamber of Commerce brought colonists from Northern Italy to the Province of Vojvodina in order to transfer high quality Italian hemp along with the skills of hemp cultivation and processing.
Area
Hemp production and processing have been mostly concentrated in the Province of Vojvodina but the crop was well known and used almost everywhere. In the 1930’s, hemp was sown at more than 50,000 hectares (Makendic, 1937). The recorded maximum hemp area in the former Yugoslavia reached as much as 108.215 ha in 1949. According to FAO data, during the most intensive hemp growing period, when the world areas amounted as much as about 1 M ha, the former Yugoslavia ranked among the most significant producers of this crop, covering 25% the total European hemp area (excluding the USSR) and 6% of the world production. In spite of this fact, Yugoslavia is often omitted from publications that mention the hemp growing counties.
Production and processing
In the early period, hemp was produced at plots belonging to small farmers and practically all production and processing operations were done by hand. Poverty forced people to try to cover their own needs, so farmers produced their own fabrics and similar articles from hemp. Virtually there was not a single household without hemp, equipment for its processing or hemp-based products of some kind.
The modernization that started in the 1930’s turned the hemp into an industrial crop. During the period 1900-1960, there were at least 30 places with active hemp-processing facilities on the territory of Serbia. A unique hemp stock market was established in the town of Odzaci with influence on prices as far as Italy and England.
At the beginning of fiber hemp production, land races of Italian origin were grown and named like “Futoška”, “Titelska”, “Apatinska”, “Vukovarska”, “Potocka”, “Osjecka”, “Beljska”, “Leskovacka”, etc. after the region of their most intensive cultivation. It is interesting to note that part of this material, under the name of "Yugoslav hemp", even reached Chile (Foster, 1996) and as many as 34 genotypes originating from the former Yugoslavia are registered in the VIR gene bank collection (Lemeshev et al., 1994). In the 1960’s, certified seed of the Italian cultivars "Bologna" and "Carmagnola" was imported and even multiplied to some extent. The monoecious French "Fibrimon" has also been tried with limited success. During the last 10-15 years, the Hungarian cultivars "Kompolti" and especially "Uniko-B" and "Kompolti Hibrid TC" made a significant contribution to the yield and quality improvements of the Yugoslav fiber hemp production.
Hemp research in Yugoslavia had been officially started in 1952, when a research station in Backi Petrovac was established as a part of the Institute of Agricultural Research (present Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops) in Novi Sad. The founder and first head of the Station, M. Husar, was responsible for hemp breeding and production technology research. M. Lazic took over the hemp breeding and developed the variety “Novosadska konoplja." It is interesting to mention that R. Fleischmann, the famous hemp breeder, apparently had his first contacts with hemp during his temporary stay at the Ruma estate located close to Novi Sad.
The first signal of hemp production crisis, a gradual but steady decrease in hemp acreage, appeared at the beginning of this century. The crisis did not fail to hit the European producers, more so those in Western Europe than those in Eastern parts. The first 80% reduction of the hemp acreage in the Province of Vojvodina occurred in 1968, another 80% reduction in 1988. Since that time, the hemp was a minor crop in Yugoslavia but its production has never ceased.
Hemp exhibition
An important segment part of the long and bountiful history of hemp production in Yugoslavia has been rescued from oblivion by the establishment of the Agricultural Museum in Kulpin near Novi Sad. The history of hemp was among the first events to be put on exhibition. It is a well-documented presentation of the old-fashioned ways of hemp growing, retting, crushing, spinning, weaving, and folk customs associated with the hemp, completed with a set of well-preserved old devices used for domestic hemp processing. A major part of the photo material for this presentation was taken from a book of J. Kišgeci (1995).
Hemp production
The hemp production area in Yugoslavia, i.e., in the Province of Vojvodina, is presently stabilized at the level of 1-1.500 ha for fiber hemp and additional 100-150 ha for seed hemp, i.e., certified seed and birdseed. Two distinct regions exist which are especially suited for fiber or seed hemp. The only cultivar presently grown is the local dioecious cultivar "Novosadska konoplja."
The hemp production is shared between private growers and state farms. It is an important fact that the hemp as an annual spring crop fits well into the prevailing crop rotation. The hemp is harvested early in the season and the soil is left in good condition. In that way hemp proved to be a good proceeding crop for the majority of field crops (Drezgic et al., 1975). Mineral nutrition, soil preparation and sowing have to be carried out with great care. Otherwise, the hemp crop tends to show a very uneven early growth adversely effecting the crop till the end of the season. The relatively short vegetation period of hemp enables it to simply avoid the drought, a serious crop limiting factor on the Panonian Plain especially in last few years. It serves as an explanation why the hemp yield, looking over a longer period of time, is more stable and less variable than the yield of corn and other field crops (Starcevic, 1966). The technology of hemp growing is simple and it does not require special mechanization, except that for harvesting.
From the plant protection point of view, hemp may be called a true ecological crop, since it does not require pesticide application. Until now, there have been no diseases or pests regularly causing considerable economic losses (Camprag et al., 1996).
It is worthwhile to consider the reaction of hemp to weeds as well as its role as a weed itself. The wiping out effect of well-developed, tightly overgrown mass of hemp on weeds is especially expressed in case of densely grown fiber hemp (Starcevic, 1978) but the phenomenon could be observed with less dense seed hemp as well. In last few years, Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) has become the most serious weed in the Province of Vojvodina. Growing hemp is considered as an effective ecological solution to the problem of Johsongrass control. It is however important to achieve a vigorous early growth of hemp otherwise the Johsongrass tends to overgrow and suppress it. It is presumed that the less dense seed hemp might be more vulnerable to the suppressing effect of Johnsongrass. Of the anti-Johnsongrass herbicides tested, some showed appreciable selectivity to hemp.
In recent years, a parasitic weed Orobanche sp. has been observed on seed hemp plants in several locations. Although the robust seed hemp plants showed no visible sign of suffering from the tender Orobanche sp. plants, the phenomenon deserves attention since this parasitic weed is again becoming a formidable for the sunflower. Experiments aimed at determining the racial structure of Orobanche sp. originating from hemp plots as opposed to that from sunflower plots are under way.
The spontaneously growing "wild hemp" could be found sporadically throughout the whole country, even in the areas where the hemp had never been grown. Roadsides, ditch banks and similar undisturbed areas are the most frequent places for its occurrence. The tendency of spontaneous hemp to occupy neighboring fields, thus itself becoming a weed, has been observed. The origin and nature of the spontaneous hemp are planned to be studied in more detail in its original environment as well as in experimental plots.
Fiber hemp production
The fiber hemp production is organized by hemp factories contracting private farmers as well as state farms. The former sow hemp on small plots (1-2 ha), the later on larger fields (50-100 ha). Approximately 85 kg of seed is planted per hectare in row-to-row distance of 12,5 cm. In the production of fiber hemp, a tractor-powered mower followed by hand binding or the Russian-made mower-binder “Zatka” is used. The bundles are collected into “fish bone” or round stacks for drying in the field. Bundles or bales pressed from them are transported to hemp processing facility. This production technology is rather labor-intensive and its modernization is required.
Seed hemp production
The certified hemp seed production is organized by the Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops in Novi Sad and several seed companies contract birdseed production. The hemp seed production is contracted merely with private farmers on small plots (1-2 ha) since state farms owning large fields are not in position to carry through the production technology that is almost completely based on hand labor. The seed crop is sown at the row-to-row distance of 70 cm by 20-30 cm in the row. Starting from the time of pollination of the dioecious cultivar "Novosadska konoplja" produced, the identified male plants are destroyed. The crop is cut by sickle, dried in armfuls in the field and threshed by striking the top of a few plants against an angled wooden board. The seed is then collected, cleaned and bagged. The fiber-rich stalks left behind after threshing are usually sold as kindling. Bakeries are especially interested in such fuel.
Certified seed and birdseed are further processed in the usual way. The certified seed is distributed from the Institute to the growers of fiber hemp via the hemp industry. The farmers usually compensate for the seed at the end of the production cycle by the straw of fiber hemp they produce. Hemp seed is an important ingredient of many birdseed recipes in which it takes part with about 2-10%.
Processing of fiber hemp
The hemp straw received from farmers is stored in stacks and processed in two phases.
The primary phase of processing includes water retting of bundled straw, drying and stacking of retted straw. It if followed by decortication performed by automated breakers. The baled hemp fiber is the end product of the first phase. The boon is sold in bulk or in form of briquettes both as a highly demanded burning material. Five operating facilities exist at present in Yugoslavia for the primary processing of hemp.
The secondary phase of fiber hemp processing takes place in four hemp factories. They produce threads, twines, ropes, cordage, rough canvases and similar hemp-based textile products from the raw material obtained from the primary processors.
The Yugoslav hemp research and development project
The current multidisciplinary Yugoslav Hemp Research and Development Project has been summarized in detail at the scientific meeting "Renaissance of Hemp" held in Novi Sad on September 20, 1996.
Hemp breeding and seed production
The long-term plan of the Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops in Novi Sad is to supply the Yugoslav hemp growers with domestic certified seed of the cultivar "Novosadska konoplja." This variety is to be replaced by domestic dioecious and monoecious open-pollinated as well as hybrid cultivars when they are developed. The breeding of new cultivars is in due course. Among the main breeding objectives special seed and fiber types should be mentioned. It is planned to expand the existing breeding material with the accessions originating from the former Yugoslavia and available in the VIR gene bank. The breeding methods employed are individual selection, especially for overstored seed, mass selection, pedigree breeding and development of different types of hybrid cultivars based on of the phenomenon of unisexuality.
Concurrently with the breeding efforts, seed production technology too is under examination. The experiment with toping of plants in order to increase the number and vigor of seed-bearing side branches did not produce clear conclusions yet. The definition of optimum plant density of seed hemp is in progress. Experiments have been commenced in order to define the effect of storage conditions on the viability of hemp seed.
Mechanization of harvest
A lack of suitable mechanization especially for harvesting of fiber as well as seed hemp is considered to be a serious bottleneck to the present and future hemp production in Yugoslavia. To solve the problem, agronomists (Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops in Novi Sad) and mechanical engineers (Faculty of Engineering Sciences in Novi Sad along with the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Belgrade) embarked on a joint project. Prototypes of two machines have been constructed and thoroughly tested. The first is a mower-binder primarily intended for seed hemp but satisfactory results have been achieved with cutting and binding of fiber hemp as well. The second machine is a seed hemp thresher that follows the first one during the two-phase harvesting of seed hemp. Both machines need further improvements but they already provide satisfactory working performances. Further improvement of harvesting mechanization for fiber and seed hemp is in progress.
Hemp seed oil
Preliminary results have been achieved with extraction of hemp seed oil by mechanical pressing as well as by CO2 extraction. A variant of the later procedure is to mix hemp seeds with natural antioxidants before extraction in order to provide better protection of hempseed oil from oxidation. Detailed chemical analyses of hempseed oil are under way.
Hemp as a drug
Hemp, or more precisely the psychoactive TetraHydroCannabinol. (THC), is on the list of forbidden drugs whose production, distribution and use are prohibited by the Yugoslav law. Theoretically it means total prohibition for Cannabis sp. In practice, however, presumed intention to use hemp is the ground to place one under suspicion of taking part in an illegal action. It means that while no special license is necessary to produce fiber or seed hemp under contract with a hemp factory, the Institute or a birdseed company, a discovery of a small, hidden plot with a few hemp plants by police authorities may be a sufficient reason to bring charges for drug abuse. Laboratory results of plant material are additional evidence used in court since the law is referring to THC in a qualitative (present or not) way without a precise quantitative definition. The impression is that sentences are often passed for possessing hemp or plant parts containing THC far bellow the level necessary for detectable psychoactive effect. Such sentences are based merely on the confessions of the offenders that their intention was to use hemp as a drug. From the commercial hemp production point of view, this attitude is acceptable but obviously the legislature should be further refined in order to differentiate more precisely and more objectively between the non-drug hemp (low THC) and the drug hemp (high THC).
Yugoslavia enjoys comparative advantages in terms of favorable agroecological conditions for hemp growing along with a long tradition of hemp growing and processing. The advantages are especially pronounced in respect to the countries in which the demand for natural hemp products is growing but hemp production is limited by law or by a lack of tradition. In Yugoslavia there have never been limitations for commercial fiber and seed hemp production for industrial purposes and this condition is expected to continue in future.
Textile industry
The representatives of hemp fiber industry consider the relative coarseness and poor spinning ability of hemp fiber as compared with other natural fibers as the main disadvantage that should be improved technologically during the second phase of fiber hemp processing. The domestic textile industry is planning to widen its present hemp-based assortment consisting of threads, twines, ropes and similar products with new items including fine textiles and fabrics. For the first stage of this program 4-5.000 ha of fiber hemp is planned. The plan calls for an improved processing technology and modified equipment. The modernization of production as well as of the processing techniques and technology requires considerable investments that presently are not available to the domestic textile industry.
Hemp for paper
The idea of using hemp as a raw material for paper production is not a new one. A paper mill in Rijeka (former Yugoslavia, presently Croatia) had practiced this for decades, basing paper production on hemp coming from the Province of Vojvodina. According to a feasibility study called "Senta," paper production has been planned to support the production of bleached cellulose, CTPM fibers and fuel briquettes as by-products. The project is ready for realization.
Hemp seed
Plans are made to intensify seed hemp production for high quality certified hemp seed, hemp seed for oil and for birdseed. There exist good chances of meeting all the requirements needed to declare hemp seed a certified bio-product. An annual area of 100-200 ha is planned for seed hemp.
Cooperation
The Yugoslav hemp industry and market, including all the participants of the Yugoslav Hemp Research and Development Project are open for commercial as well as R&D cooperation.
REFERENCES
Lemeshev, N., Rumyantseva, L., Clarke, R.C.: Maintenance of Cannabis germplasm in the Vavilov Research Institute Gene Bank - 1993. Journal of the International Hemp Association 1(1): 1-5, 1994.
Berenji, J., Sikora, V., Martinov, M.: Oplemenjivanje i semenarstvo konoplje. Revija agronomska saznanja 2: 68-71, 1995.
Makendic, V.: Gnojidba konoplje. Poljoprivredni glasnik 17(5): 5-7, 1937.
Drezgic, P., Stanacev, S., Starcevic, Lj.: Posebno ratarstvo-drugi deo. Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad, 1975.
Starcevic, Lj: Savremena tehnologija proizvodnje konoplje. Privredna komora Vojvodine, Novi Sad, 1966.
Camprag, D., Jovanic, M., Sekulic, R.: Štetocine konoplje i integralne mere suzbijanja. Zbornik radova naucnog institiuta za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo Novi Sad, 27: 55-68, 1996.
Starcevic, Lj.: Gustina sklopa kao cinilac formiranja prinosa i kvaliteta konoplje za vlakno. Zbornik radova institiuta za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo Novi Sad, 357-364, 1978.
Clarke, C.R.: Interview-Dr. Janos Berenji. Journal of the International Hemp Association 3(2): 69-70, 1996.
Renaissance of Hemp Symposium. Journal of the International Hemp Association 3(2): 83, 1996.
Forster, E.: History of hemp in Chile. Journal of the International Hemp Association 3(2): 72-77, 1996.
Kišgeci, J.: Praise to hemp. XXXXXXX, 1995. (Presentation: Journal of the International Hemp Association 3(2): 88, 1996).
Contact address:
Dr. Janos Berenji
Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops
21470 Backi Petrovac Yugoslavia
tel.: +831-21-780-365
fax: +381-21-780-198
e-mail: berenji@EUnet.yu
Do you know more about this? e-mail us at Matthew@HempWorld.com
Hemp facts and links related to Yugoslavia:
Research Institute:
Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops
Novi Sad, Yugoslavia, Serbia.
Dr. Janos Berenji
e-mail: berenji@eunet.yu
Do you know more about this? e-mail us at Matthew@HempWorld.com
*Industrial-Hemp has no psychoactive properties following definition of the European Economic Community (EEC); THC content is less than 0.3%. In general, low THC-seed varieties without psychoactive properties are those that have a THC content of less than 1%. (See also No-THC Hemp-seed.) THC= Delta-9 TetraHydroCannabinol.